Beginning in the middle of the 1980s, relations between General Manuel Noriega, Panama's de facto leader, and the United States started to deteriorate. In 1986 President Ronald Reagan pressured him with several drug-related indictments in U.S. courts; however, Noriega did not give in. As relations continued to spiral downward, Noriega shifted his allegiance towards the Soviet bloc, soliciting and receiving military aid from Cuba, Nicaragua, and Libya. In May 1989, an alliance of opposition parties counted results from the Panamanian national elections, which showed their candidate, Guillermo Endara, defeating pro-Noriega Carlos Duque by nearly 3-to-1. Endara was beaten up by Noriega supporters the next day while Noriega declared the election null and void. On December 15, the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that U.S. actions had caused a state of war to exist with Panama. Then on December 16, four U.S. military personnel were stopped at a roadblock outside Panamanian Defense Forces (PDF) headquarters; the PDF opened fire as they attempted to flee an angry mob. One soldier, Lt. Paz, was fatally wounded. President Bush then ordered the invasion of Panama, to commence at 0100 on December 20. Noriega took refuge in the Papal Nunciatura, the Vatican's embassy. The U.S. military then famously played rock music day and night for three weeks until he finally gave up on January 3, 1990.
John A. Bushnell was Chargé d'Affaires in Panama from 1989 until 1992. An assignment to the National Security Council was followed by tours as Deputy Chief of Mission at Buenos Aires, Panama and subsequently as Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs. In Part I, Bushnell discusses the planning of the invasion, Noriega's infiltration of SOUTHCOM, money laundering, the embassy's active support for the opposition, and how Secretary of State James Baker acted as his personal desk officer. You can read other excerpts in the Panama Country Reader and read Part II here.
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